Families need fathers Essay

The debate, â€Å"Families need fathers† is one in which there are many issues that need to be considered when looking at the question. Family poverty, domestic violence, the effect on children and family stereotypes by society all need to be considered in the debate. Recent surveys have shown that fathers also need families and therefore making the matter more complicated. Fathers still remain important in our society because family poverty is still largely prevented by the existence of a male, full time worker’s wage in a household. Due to the patriarchal nature of our society, women find it difficult to obtain appropriate work to fit in with custody of children. In a Social Trends survey the rise in mothers working part time form 49 percent in 1973 to 64 percent in 1994. This often means working in low paid, part time jobs with little chance that mothers’ earnings alone will be able to cover the cost of subsistence for themselves, never mind there children. Those who do work full time do not necessarily escape from economic dependence, choosing to work and pay for childcare may well prove uneconomic for large numbers of the working class. There is very little publicly provided care which fits the needs of working mothers: most pre school care is part time and infused with the ideology of education, rather then care and education. A large proportion of their income is spent on childcare and as childcare in Britain is the most expensive in Europe, lack of affordable childcare prevents the lone mother entering the labour market emphasising the need for fathers, or a male wage in the family. â€Å"Married men work harder, earn more and are more likely to have a job then other men†, according to Rowthorn and Ormerod, therefore preventing family poverty, although the modern woman is striking back. Nowadays it is easier to be a single mother. Welfare benefits, job opportunities, and the support of nurseries, playgroups and schools make it easier for single mothers to provide for their families alone. The Family Futures Report conducted by Graeme Leach predicts that by the year 2020 women will have become the main earners in at least half of all households. The feminisation of the work place will force companies to create a â€Å"mother-track† career as many companies will prefer the work of women to men meaning that affordable childcare will become available and the 20 percent pay gap will have disappeared. Even now, women’s contributions through earnings are important in reducing the family’s vulnerability to poverty. Families with 1 or 2 children were at the greatest risk of poverty without the earnings of the wife. In 1990, for example, people in households where the husband worked but the wife did not, had a 4 to 6 times higher risk of being in the bottom income quintile then those where both parents were working. Gittins (1993) states that more divorced men remarry showing that women have more independence and less need for a relationship, the family does not need a father or male figure to survive. The effect on children growing up without a father is one of the main focuses on the debate as there is a great deal of evidence to suggest that this has an enormous impact on the emotional and physical health of the child. Dennis and Erdos (1993) argued that research into the effect of fatherless families showed that † unless a child is brought up in the constant atmosphere of human beings negotiating, co-operating, controlling their anger, affecting reconciliation’s, he (sic) cannot learn what it is to be an effective member of a social group†¦ for this he needs the presence of two adults in close interaction constantly in his immediate environment. † Fatherless families are seen as contributing to the rise of educational failure, welfare dependency, and involvement in crime and drug abuse among young people, especially young boys from council estates. Indeed, only a quarter of persistent young offenders lived with two parents and that included step parents and mother’s boyfriends, 4 out of 5 children going into care have lone parents and on American and British council estates it was found that the higher the percentage of lone parent households, the higher the percentage of crime and burglary. These statistics show that it is not just families that need fathers; society also needs them as well. The concern for the effect of divorce on children is being researched more and more as divorce rates are becoming higher, one in three marriages now end in divorce and the effect on children is being examined closely. Rowthorn and Ormerod state that â€Å"on every measure of achievement and emotional condition, children living with their married parents usually do better then other children† although it is often hard to distinguish between the effects of marriage and divorce and other factors such as poverty and racism. Nevertheless, divorce often means poor exam results, damaged health and stress and four times the risk of needing psychiatric help as a child. Dr Richards took 17,000 children from the National Child Development Survey and monitored their lives at intervals until they were 35. He discovered that children, whose parents had divorced before they were 16, were on average less emotionally stable, left home earlier, and divorced or separated more frequently. However, this study was concerned with children of the middle class in 1958, and from then till now, social attitudes have changed as divorce is much more acceptable then it was in the fifties and therefore children are less affected by it, but most studies show the more involved the father; the better developed the child intellectually and socially. This view that children are affected by the absence of a father in the family is one to be contested. The latest research for the Joseph Rowntree Foundation shows that the absence of one or other parent figure from a household is not the aspect of separation which most effects the child’s development. Children are not necessarily harmed by divorce providing the parents split in an amicable fashion and good regular contact with the absent father can reduce some of the ill effects of divorce.

Globalization of Levi Strauss Essay

Globalization is a necessary evil that allows business to make huge profits and third-world countries to begin creating a free market economy. While it seems that globalization may be a solution to the problem of poverty and starvation for some people, it may also contribute to issues such as child labor, discrimination, exploitation and health and safety issues for people working in developing countries. Since U.S. laws do not apply to American companies operating in foreign countries, these companies have an ethical responsibility to create codes of conduct to govern the way they treat people and conduct business overseas. Levi Strauss & Co. has been a leader in corporate and social responsibility; the first multinational company to create a code of conduct for their international facilities, business partners and suppliers (History, 2009). Levi Strauss & Co. was founded in 1853, by a Levi Strauss, an immigrant from Bavaria and Jacob Davis, a tailor from Reno, Nevada. The two men patented the riveted-pocket work pants and began the multi-million dollar company that it is today. LS&Co. was developed on Levi Strauss’s high morals and values: empathy, originality, integrity and courage, and continues to operate under these core values today (History, 2009). The company is well known for its corporate social responsibility and has been recognized and rewarded for its ethical conduct. In 1965, as demands for the clothing began to grow world-wide, LS&Co. established Levi Strauss International and Levi Strauss Far East, allowing them to manufacture and sell products in Europe and Asia. In 1971, the company opened a facility in Japan, which became the company’s first official entry into Asia. Today, the company employs over 11,000 people around the world, with 4,700 employees in the Americas, 4,400 in Europe and 2,300 in Asia Pacific (History, 2009). While globalization increased profits for the company, ethical issues also began to become more evident. In order to uphold the values that the company was founded on, the company would have  to create ethical guidelines for international operations. In 1991, Levi Strauss & Co. was the first multi-national company to develop a code of ethics for its international business partners and suppliers. The Levi Strauss & Co. Global Sourcing Guidelines were designed to ensure that all LS&Co. facilities worldwide, as well as suppliers and business partners, conducted business in ethically and socially responsible ways (Solomon, 1996). Requiring their business partners and suppliers to follow the company code of conduct protected the employees in developing countries who could easily be exploited, and it protected the company’s reputation, which would also contribute to their success. This code of conduct was developed in order to avoid or eliminate some of the most common ethical dilemmas associated with globalization. In order to maintain contracts with LS&Co., suppliers agreed to provide workers with fair wages, a safe and healthy working environment and abide by the laws and regulations that govern the country and industry. Suppliers would also prohibit the use of child or forced labor, discrimination and forms of inhumane disciplinary practices (Solomon, 1996). While globalization helps developing countries to build free market economies, it also presents many ethical dilemmas, as huge companies profit from the desperate need for work in poor countries (Dickey, 2002). Since ethical issues can be viewed differently by different cultures, developing global business ethics can be difficult. For example, many western cultures may view child labor as a necessary, and accepted, source of income for many families, but many Americans and other western cultures see child labor as abuse. When Levi Strauss & Co. learned that two of its suppliers were using child labor in Bangladesh, they had a moral dilemma. The families of the working children relied heavily on their incomes, so firing them might create a major hardship on the children and their families, or even force the children to look for more inhumane sources of income, such as prostitution or begging (Solomon, 1996). LS&Co. looked for more creative ways to solve the problem, and came up with a solution that would benefit everyone. Their suppliers agreed to continue paying the children under age 14 while they attended school, and LS&Co. paid for tuition, books and  uniforms, then when the children turned 14, they could be rehired by the company (Solomon, 1996). This solution created no financial hardship for the children and families who would otherwise lose their income, and allowed them to receive an education, as children should. Levi Strauss & Co. has also faced other ethical issues overseas, and taken a responsible approach to resolving the problem. In 1998, for example, they decided to close the factories in Belgium, but worried that the loss of over 1,000 jobs might devastate the Belgian economy. In order to avoid financial hardship for the community, and stimulate employment, LS&Co. decided to pay each employee a farewell bonus of $13,201, and an additional $4,950 to all employees who found employment within four months. They also agreed to pay employees who decided to receive training instead of work $330 per month for six months, and employees who did not work received $90 per month for three years. Considering the average annual salary for Belgian workers was between $2,000 and $3,000, this bonus was more than fair to the employees who had been laid off. Levi Strauss & Co. continued to contribute to the Belgian economy to make sure that the market would remain stable and keep the unemployed from going into poverty (Bennett, 2008). That year, they contributed $78,560 to programs that encouraged education, training, workforce development, small businesses, life skills training and financial literacy to the Belgian economy, in the belief that â€Å"economic development extends beyond the workplace†¦and in order for an economy to thrive, the community must be able to support it† (Bennett, 2008, p.4). Levi Strauss & Co. has been a leader in corporate social responsibility and one of the first multi-national companies to develop a code of conduct for global business ethics. The company continues to demonstrate their values of empathy, originality, integrity and courage while operating in all countries, and requires the same of their suppliers and business partners. Their creative solutions to common ethical dilemmas in developing countries, such as child labor and layoffs, and their continued efforts to contribute to the economies of the developing countries they operate in, sets a powerful example for multinational corporations to follow. Even though globalization can provide an income for people who might otherwise starve to  death, it can also lead to ethical and moral problems such as child labor, low wages and hazardous working conditions. While it is not illegal, or unethical, for companies to operate overseas, they do have an ethical responsibility to deal with ethical dilemmas in a responsible and socially acceptable manner. References Bennett, D. (2008). Globalization and blue jeans. Retrieved May 21, 2010, from Associated Content: http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/896109/globalization_and_blue_jeans.html?cat=17 Dickey, F. (2002). Levi Strauss and the price we pay. Retrieved May 22, 2010, from Mindfully.org: http://www.mindfully.org/WTO/Levi-Strauss-Globalization1dec02.htm History. (2009). Retrieved May 22, 2010, from Levi Strauss & Co.: http://www.levistrauss.co.za/Heritage/History.aspx Solomon, C. M. (1996). Put your ethics to a global test. Personnel Journal, 75(1). Human Resources Abstracts. Retrieved May 22, 2010 from EBSCOhost.

Articles of Confederation DBQ

Between 1781 and 1789 America experienced a period of political weakness and lack of action to fix the impending crisis. Following the Revolutionary War, America succeeded in establishing its liberty, free of tyrannical British rule. During this period, the new found freedom of America acted as a double-edged sword. Although Americans had finally achieved the freedom that they had fought for, they were faced with the challenge of establishing an entirely new system of government which they organized under the Articles of Confederation.John Dickinson led the authors of the Articles of Confederation by sharing the document with the Continental Congress on July 12, 1776. The Articles of Confederation provided the United States with an ineffective government, incapable of performing the necessary duties to ensure the success of the growing nation. During the establishment of this free nation, individuals throughout the colonies felt a greater loyalty to their colony than to the newly for med nation which was reflected in the distribution of powers throughout the levels of government.Americans had recently escaped the clutches of a tyrannical government under the rule of King George III of England resulting in a fear of too much centralized power. Instead, the Articles of Confederation regarded the state government as more powerful than the federal government, undermining any federal laws that were passed, as displayed in Document A.â€Å"The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. â€Å"

Managing Data Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Data Assignment - Essay Example In the task, we listened to a short BBC Radio 4 programme segment entitled ‘More or Less’. The show is a series about statistics. It discusses the use and abuse of statistics in modern applications. In the show modern media of news communications like; TV news, radio news and newspapers, are looked at by people. It majorly tackles statistics involved in these news communication media and after listening to the segment we were required to carry out a number of tasks. First was to listen to the segment attentively and make notes on information we got from it. It had no particular area where we had to make notes on, but we were required to put down anything important that we retained from the show. This was important since questions from the subject being talked about in the show would be asked. Taking enough and accurate points from the show was, therefore, important since it would determine how one performed on the questions asked after the show. At the end of the show, the class was presented with a couple of questions based on the subject on the segment. One was required to answer in accordance to what we heard and put down notes on from the show. The topic was on low energy light bulbs, and we were required to answer questions on the subject: By the end of the workshop, the student was to be able to precisely describe the construction of the table in full. Also, to outline why the table’s author combined discrete pieces of data found in the table. The student was to be able to explain why data collection was done in the first place and what the hypothesis being tested (Ras, 2009).The first task of the workshop was that we were required to form two or three groups depending on the class size. Then, in each of groups formed we select one student who would work on describing the tabular data. The other members of the group would

Democracy and Citizenship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Democracy and Citizenship - Essay Example Specifically, the form of globalization that characterizes the current economy is one that seeks to establish one universal, synthetic culture that is entirely open to capitalistic rigidness, while at the same time rejects and erodes the older, deeper culture and traditions of individual societies and peoples. This hurts the world at a local level, and is bad for the greater population—for this general reason, I support the community economy as an alternative. Harvey’s critique of the system that the world depends on today points out how neoliberalism and capitalism have affected what society’s priorities are. He says that countries using such a system â€Å"typically favor the integrity of the financial system†¦ over the well-being of the population or environmental quality† (Harvey 71). This is a concept that I fundamentally disagree with, as I see it as a violation of business ethics and a lack of concern for two things that are of utmost importanc e—human life, and the condition of the planet we inhabit. Harvey also describes how neoliberalism enforces a redistribution of resources. This redistribution, however, is not the type that is favored by more communal systems, such as Marxist theory, but instead works quite the opposite. While many people may be conditioned to believe that capitalism is completely naturally in allowing money and wealth to flow where it is earned, it can accurately be said that, just as socialism may redistribute resources to the poor according to need, the neoliberal system is a redistribution of wealth to the upper classes (Harvey 9). Beyond the manipulation of wealth, neoliberalism also robs the population of some of its sovereignty. While citizens entrust their government with basic functions and resources, neoliberalism encourages the government to redistribute those responsibilities and resources to private corporations (Harvey 77). This is, in a sense, taking power from the hands of the government, which represents the whole population, and placing it in the hands of the few who have a private interest in profit. Indeed, this is a complete contradiction in my view. Harvey’s critique continues along these lines. He highlights two particular misgivings about the current system, one being the capitalist fixation with technology as a solution for everything. In reality, he says, technology is tied to the destruction of the environment, social breakdowns, and crises (Harvey 69). The even greater problem, however, is that neoliberalism has become so ingrained in law and society that it has created an inescapable web, making it extremely difficult for society as a whole to undo what groundwork has been laid (Harvey 63). These all demonstrate the complete lack of consideration in the modern economy for the community, for local benefit, and for human happiness. I do not support such an approach, as I believe in having a consideration for the well-being of all people, in following the Golden Rule of doing unto others as you would have them do to you, and in promoting the concepts of liberty and happiness rather than an unequal socio-economic systems that brings wealth and power into the hands of the few. The benefits of the community economy, as an alternative to capitalism, are superfluous. Many movements exist already that are rooted in the community eco

Social Contract Theory of John Locke Research Paper

Social Contract Theory of John Locke - Research Paper Example The US constitution includes the Bill of rights, which protects the freedom, liberty, and other rights of the individuals; at the same time, the constitution specifies the scope of authority of the President, the Judiciary, and the Congress. Thus, the constitution in its true sense in indeed a contract between the individuals and the state, whereby the natural laws of the individuals are intact and the state authority has been specified as well. Moreover, the criminal justice system also follows the principals of Locke`s social contract theory, as the system ensures that the rights and the belongings of individuals are protected, and, by collective submissiveness to law, all citizens empower the system to take punitive action against the violators. In this context, one can conclude that freedom leads to complete independence and liberation; however, as per the social contract, one also has to fulfill the duties and comply with ethical standards to obtain one`s own rights. Social cont ract is an intellectual, even political theoretical paradigm, which focuses on the origins of the society and the legitimacy of the state authority over the individuals of the state. The basic tenet of this theory implies that the individuals of the state have permitted the state to exercise power over them to protect their rights and freedoms; in other words, there is a social contract between the state and the individuals – the people will give authority to the government and, in turn, seek the protection of their natural laws. Different theorists have come up with their own versions of the theory, with the same basic assumptions but, however, with minute differences in the perspectives. Hugo Grotius (1625) gave the idea of the natural laws and argued that all individuals should comply with the moral and religious values to ensure that everyone receives their due share of rights. Thomas Hobbes has an important contribution to the development of the theory, as he suggested t hat a social contract resulted between individuals and the state due to the anarchy, which was the reason behind poor living conditions of the individuals. Rousseau, on the other hand, gave a different version of the theory, as he believed that the general will of the people should be considered for the social contract, as every person has the right to express his or her will – thus he aimed at attaining social contract not by collective will but rather by the general will of the individuals. However, Pierre-Joseph’s version of the social contract implies that the contract is a result of the individuals trying to avoid coercion from other individuals; he argued that the contract is a result of â€Å"†¦ An agreement with a man to a man...† (Morris, 1990). However, Locke`s form of social contract theory implies that the individuals would willingly form a state in an effort to protect their natural rights by virtue of the state, which would further be discusse d in detail. (Morris, 1990) John Locke is of the view that the natural law transcends all other man-made laws, and thus, to protect these natural laws, the individuals themselves willingly give authority to

I scanned the topic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

I scanned the topic - Essay Example Few however could argue that Saddam Husseins Iraq was a place where anyone would want to live or was in any way a state that worked. It was a dysfunctional polity. It was a totalitarian hell where the dictator exercised complete control and enjoyed his sadistic whims. He used political power in an arbitrary manner in order to keep his citizens guessing. The two works under discussion Ijaam and The Tiger show Iraq under Saddam to be a capricious hell. This paper will argue that the kind of totalitarianism practised by Saddam eliminates the opportunity to have freedom. Some people believe the only way for order to prevail is for a dictator to rule. These people are totalitarians or authoritarians. It is a particular political philosophy. They believe that only a figure of immense power could guarantee the sorts of contracts people required with one another to live in peace. In order to increase the order and prosperity of society as a whole, an absolute sovereign would have to make some minimum guarantees: namely, peace and the upholding of contracts. In this view of the world ethics most be imposed on human beings who are just animals red in tooth and claw and who live lives that are dim and empty. None of these ideas take into account the brainwashing and control of Saddams Iraq. As the story â€Å"Tigers on the Tenth Day† shows the process of taking control can happen slowly. Often this processes are put in place without even people noticing. Year by year, the strictures tighten and the violence becomes more abusive. In this way, it is h ard for people to rebel, hard for them to speak out since things are happening so slowly. The tiger in this story is able to rationalize its behaviour. It says for example that it is mewing like a cat for its own amusement. When someone lives in fear they will do anything in order to survive the innumerable indignities of life. They will rationalize away their humiliations. This too

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - STRATEGIC IMPLEMENTATION AND CHANGES Essay

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - STRATEGIC IMPLEMENTATION AND CHANGES - Essay Example Realization of the objectives is the benchmark for assessment, making it a routine for the management to employ creative strategies for effective achievement of the objectives. Implementation becomes a nightmare for many companies where commitment, assessment and review become distinct parameters without coordination and synergy, always frustrating initially vibrant ideas. Suitability studies are carried out alongside feasibility as well as acceptability levels, in order to ascertain its applicability in the specific area of interest. For efficiency in management and delivery of results in as far as policies are concerned, strategic planning is usually the solution. The specific areas of action are identified and appropriate solutions projected are brought out for implementation. The conversion of intentions into desired actions goes hand in hand with tackling of the factors that hinder the implementation of the strategies in efficient management. Leadership and management skills are the key solutions to strategic management, where each set of skills complement realization of objectives. Leadership skills offer one portion of the puzzle while management skills offer the other. Mintzberg’s model of management provides that strategic management goes farther than the mere formulation of strategic policies. A clear articulation of the mission, goals and objectives goes hand in hand with the successful implementation of the strategic plan. Prior plans are therefore put in place for the necessary implementation approach, since formulation and effective action are different things in strategic management. The identification of the mission, vision and goals of the organization before the specific strategy formulation usually addresses the real management problems in advance. Lamb (1994, p.ix) states that strategic management is a continuous process that requires frequent review and change to keep up with the pace in the market. The ever changing business environment

Functions of Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Functions of Public Relations - Essay Example The two main functions of Public Relations are Organizational and Societal. The scope of Organizational Public Relations covers all the internal processes. This is the representation of the company in relation to specific groups or other organizations. This is directed to both internal and external groups. An example of an internal group is the employee base of the company and one example of an external group is the media. With Organizational Public Relations, the focus is on knowing and addressing the needs of the company or the issues in the organization itself and relating this to how other organizations outside the company affect these needs and how they can contribute to the resolving of issues or problems. Societal functions of Public Relations on the other hand, deal with external processes or how the company reaches out to society. This includes activities or strategies directed towards the public with the intention of addressing their needs and interests. The societal functi ons have intentions of both serving the objectives of the company and getting information from the public regarding their needs and concerns so these matters may be properly attended to. I have cited two specific functions each for both organizational and societal public relations. A. Organizational 1. Employee Relations This is part of the organizational function of Public Relations as the purpose of this strategy is to maintain a healthy employee-employer relationship with the aim of improving productivity, increasing morale and providing motivation (Employee Relations, 2001). Information is given to the employees regarding the goals, objectives and the current status or performance of the company. It is also a venue for the airing of grievances or concerns. It is usually done through internal communications like company newsletters or briefings, dialogues, recognition programs and other company events. 2. Media Relations The media has been the main instrument for Public Relations campaigns or programs. It is the means by which information which the organization needs and wants to convey to the public, is disseminated. Media Relations is establishing an affiliation with the media by consistently responding to them and reaching out to them. Public Relations, in this aspect acts as a representation of the company to the media. Media relations is part of the organizational function because it addresses the objectives of the company by establishing close cooperation with another group or entity which is very instrumental to the achievement of the company's goals. B. Societal 1. Marketing Communications Marketing Communications provides means to send messages across markets or to a specific market. Its focus is on the products and services of the company and is mainly concerned with the increase in demand and proper positioning of the products and services (Marketing Communications). The tasks involved in Marketing Communications include promotion, advertising, publicity, branding and packaging among others. These tasks help in the efforts to increase product awareness and sales of the company's products and

Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Research Methods - Essay Example Every organization requires resourcefulness and ingenuity as well as pragmatic decision-making for its sustenance. There is always a balance between the benefit of the business and the benefit of the people being affected by the business, directly or indirectly. Therefore, it is not possible to set up any permanent basis by which decisions can be made—they have to be made with regard to the circumstances and according to whatever has maximum significance at that point of time in the list of priorities. However, the point is to make the required compromise without violating the ethical code of conduct in business. The very existence of an ethical code of conduct in all professions implies that it is present to create a situation in which no individual has to compromise on his basic needs or functions in life. I see myself grappling very frequently with ethical issues as a part of my involvement with clients. There might often be situations in which profit for my company does not directly translate into benefits for my client. In this case, it would be necessary to consider whether as an eth ical person I would ensure that my client has reasonable knowledge of the situation. Hence, in dealing with other individuals, especially the consumer end of the business, I consider it necessary to view ethics as a major proponent in decision-making.

Philips Kotler Marketing Management Essay Example for Free

Philips Kotler Marketing Management Essay Analyzing Consumer Markets Since marketing starts from the customer, it is of primary importance to understand the psyche of the customers and their buying motives. This chapter talks about the various behavioural patterns that govern the decision making process of a customer. A marketer needs to understand these factors affecting the customer’s purchase decisions so as to design an appropriate marketing strategy. Factors affecting Consumer Buying Behaviour 1. Cultural Factors a. Culture Frames traditions, values, perceptions, preferences. E.g. Child learning from family surroundings. b. Sub-culture Provides more specific identification and socialization. Include nationalities, religions, racial groups and geographic regions. c. Social Class – Homogeneous and enduring divisions in a society which are hierarchically ordered. Members share similar tastes and behaviour. 2. Social Factors a. Reference Groups – Have direct or indirect influence on person’s attitude and behaviour. Primary groups: regular interaction, e.g. family, friends, neighbours. Secondary groups: religious, professional, trade union groups. Aspirational Groups: ones that a person hopes to join. Dissociative groups: whose values or behaviour and individual rejects. b. Family – Family of orientation: parents and siblings. Acquires orientation towards religion, politics and economics, sense of personal ambition, self worth and love. Family of procreation: spouse and children. More direct influence on buying behaviour. c. Roles and Status – Role consists of activities a person is expected to perform. Each role carries a status. Marketers must be aware of the status symbol of each product. Chapter 6 Analyzing Consumer Markets 3. Personal Factors a. Age and Stage in the Life Cycle – Tastes are age related. Markets should also consider critical life events or transitions. b. Occupation and Economic Circumstances – Economic Circumstances like spendable income, savings, assets, debts, borrowing power etc affect consumption patterns. c. Personality and Self Concept – Personality, set of distinguishing characteristics that influence his/her buying behaviour. Consumers match brand personality with their ideal self concept instead of their actual self concept. d. Lifestyle and Values 4. Psychological Factors a. Motivation: Freud’s theory of id, ego and super ego; Maslow’s need hierarchy theory; Herzberg’s two factor model. b. Perception: Process by which we select, organize and interpret information inputs. In marketing, perceptions are more important than reality. c. Learning – Induces changes in behaviour arising from experience. Marketers can build demand by associating the product with positive drives. d. Memory – Short term and long term memory. Build brand knowledge and brand recall as node in memory. Problem Recogniton Information Search Evaluation of Alternatives Purchase Decision Postpurchase Behaviour The Buying Decision Process Problem Recognition Customer recognises a need triggered by internal or external stimuli. Marketers need to identify circumstances that trigger needs. Information Search Two levels of involvement – Heightened attention when person becomes more receptive to information about the product. At next level consumer may enter into active information search, looking for reading material, phoning friends etc. Evaluation of Alternatives Factors influencing a particular choice over the other include attitudes, beliefs and expectancy value. Purchase Decision Between purchase intention and purchase decision, 2 intervening factors come into play- Attitudes of others and Unanticipated situational factors. Marketers should understand that these factors provoke  risk and should provide information to reduce it. Post purchase Behaviour Marketers must monitor postpurchase satisfaction, postpurchase actions, and postpurchase product uses. Chapter 6 Analyzing Consumer Markets Trends Level of customer involvement Involvement Significant Insignificant Differences in Brands High Complex Buying Behaviour Low Variety Seeking Dissonance Reducing Habitual 1. Complex Buying Behaviour: When a customer purchases something for the first time. 2. Variety Seeking: Consumers will keep switching varieties just out of boredom. Eg- Biscuits. Marketer should keep introducing new products and display the product prominently. 3. Habitual: Buying the same thing out of habit and not out of loyalty. Distribution network should be excellent in this case. Maintain consistency in product and advertising. 4. Dissonance Reducing: In case of repeat purchase of same product.

The current financial and economic situation Essay Example for Free

The current financial and economic situation Essay During my analysis of the current financial and economic situation, I uncovered how the effects of the situation are still being revealed. It is imperative to recognize that the situation is complex in nature and that is why we must comprehend how this dire situation came to be. We must also comprehend why we are seeing the consequences unfold, the various impacts of the financial bailout, and lastly how we might fix the situation. My research paper shall discuss in depth the effects of our ‘financial crunch’ on financial markets, such as on banks, credit unions, the stock market, the mortgage industry, and retail sectors. Because these key aspects of our culture have been negatively affected by the credit crunch, the middle class is feeling doubts about their capability to overcome this new harsh financial sphere that now exists. This paper shall carefully examine how the financial crunch has affected these individuals and thus the retail and sales industry. It shall also look at some top financial companies which require the bailout money in order to survive; for instance, Lehman Brothers, Bears Stearns, and AIG. Furthermore, we shall correlate how individuals unwittingly began to rely on credit as a means to obtain more expensive items that might otherwise be outside of their price range. In fact, we shall see that people began living beyond their means due to relying on credit versus cash purchases and this has lead to the financial mess that we are in today (http://www. economist. com/opinion/displayStory. cfm? source=hptextfeaturestory_id=11885697). In addition, I shall pin point key aspects of the financial bailout that were proposed to aid individuals in returning to their safe spending habits and thus aiding the financial retail markets. Our government is seeking to rectify the situation via the financial bailout and such governmental driven policies might in fact be essential for the development of new successful businesses and our infrastructure. The paper will need to distinguish if such policies and procedures can positively or adversely impact the financial and credit crunch situation that we find ourselves in. Towards the conclusion of the research paper, I will attempt to suggest how perhaps in hindsight we could have warded off this recession at an earlier time. My suggestions will holistically analyze how vital it is to see the â€Å"big picture† as a long term development and not simply focus on the short-term details of our dilemma. My in-depth analysis includes ‘re-valuing’ the American dollar, holding our politicians responsible for how they are spending or investing our tax dollars, absolutely educating people in how to stop relying on their credit cards for purchases, considering organic produce, and how â€Å"turning green† in the long run will be beneficial for everyone. Look more: problem and solution essay Our failure to tackle the beginning signs of the recession has indeed played a negative role in where our financial perspective lies today. Hopefully, the federal financial bailout that we find ourselves in having to come to terms will can help us learn from this experience and prevent it from occurring once again in the future. For these reasons the bailout became a pressing necessity (http://www. usnews. com/blogs/the-home-front/2008/10/3/5-reasons-the-house-passed-the-bailout-bill. html) What led to Our Current Financial Problems? The bottom line: It was the misuse of our money, risky endeavors of the mortgage and banking industry, and individuals turning to credit for the chance to procure non-essentials without paying upfront. Honestly, the true origins of this financial problem were due to being more careless with other people’s money than we are with our own money. This predicament was entirely supported by credit card companies and the mortgage industry seeking to make an easy buck. These entities were satisfied in granting high credit lines to individuals who they knew via trend and marketing analysis would be unable to pay their bills on time. This led to those corporations receiving millions based upon late fee charges and finance charges. As our public began to depend more and more on credit cards, they found themselves unable to surmount the incredible amount of debt that they had created (Velshi 16-18). Now with this situation, these individuals began to declare bankruptcy because they were unable to pay their bills and wanted the collection agencies to stop badgering them. This act was not something the credit card companies, banking industry, or mortgage companies had the foresight on how to handle. http://www. economist. com/finance/displayStory. cfm? source=hptextfeaturestory_id=11 885272 We saw that as prices rose, including oil prices, people were under pressure to meet their basic necessity payments, and began to make minimum payments on their credit debts. The fallout reflected in their credit ratings and scores dropping due to outstanding debts and responsibilities. This financial distress was seen early on by economists who were ignored businesses such as banking giants and mortgage entrepreneurs were busy making bucket loads of money. This was also shown in the economic bubble perspective, that consumer spending was slowing down because they were seeing their home values decreasing. The public had become used to the real estate market booming and decided to refinance their homes to lower their monthly mortgage payments. By doing this, they drew the equity out of their homes at the same time and spent this money in the retail industry. The retail industry saw such actions becoming common place and developed more lines of credit opportunities to compel people to get further and further into debt. The retail industry focused on charging late charges and finance charges to draw money out of people in this vicious cycle. The subprime mortgage industry and banking industries were similarly practicing unethical procedures. They used lax lending standards so they could make the most money as the home valued at higher levels and their return customers spent more to refinance to lower rates. When the introductory interest rates reverted back to the regular interest rates, individuals were faced with the impasse of either making their higher mortgage payments or trying to refinance on a home which they now owned more than it was worth. Such individuals were also weighed down with other debts, such as student loans, car loans, rising oil prices, increased costs in the retail sector, and the increase in the cost of living in 2001, which made it difficult to make timely payments. In the United States, we saw that home sales and prices fell sharply in March of 2007. Americans were also seeing high unemployment and the foreclosures began on homes. Overwhelming debt led to this severe economic situation and the recession that people were seeing. The stimulus and bailout is expected to help people face these problems. (http://money. cnn. com/2009/02/17/news/economy/obama_stimulus_meas_success/index. htm) For people overextended in their vicious debts, they now faced financial pitfalls as they had to select between making payments to debt collection agencies versus providing food for their families (http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/business/7523234. stm). The Aug 7, 2008 article, â€Å"Home Truths: A housing slump helped cause the credit crisis. But its effect on spending may have been exaggerated† the Economist illustrates that when the housing bubble burst, new homeowners were suddenly faced with the opportunity to purchase homes at much lower prices. This made it more affordable for young Americans to obtain homes at lower prices if they could qualify through the banks. This article shows that for current homeowners and landlords, this difficult economic situation leads to them cutting back on their spending in order to overcome this â€Å"loss of wealth. † (http://www. economist. com/finance/displayStory. cfm? source=hptextfeaturestory_id=11885272) As this housing and mortgage bubble has burst it has also cracked the illusion that debt was the answer to obtaining more material items. We arrived at this recession because of lax loaning practices and standards. We can see that the financial sector cared about making money versus the right decisions about who to lend money to or even how much money should be lent. This is why the financial bailout has arrived. Historically we have seen that past causes of a recession can be either external or internal in nature. For instance, internal causes include high interest rates, high taxes, high spending, mistakes by the fed to curtail financial concerns, corporate fraud, and investor reluctance to invest. On an external front, some past causes of a recession include global stock market falls such as in Asia or Europe, wars, and other such financial mayhem in the world. Overall, opinions are often divided as economists tend to disagree about when and if we are in a recession but currently they all agree that our economy is in bad shape and it has been for some time. While they hesitate to say what has toppled our economy and caused stagnation, they are certain that a variety of facts has led to our current financial predicament. Both the internal as well as external causes have resulted in a global domino affect around the globes financial and retail spectrum. The best reference we have for this situation is the Great Depression were economists saw a sharp decline in international trade . During the Great Depression large businesses were unstable and the governement via the New Deal was charged with the task of limiting how much power businesses had and giving more power to labor unions. Regulations were put into place which increased the amount of taxes paid by large corporates which generated revenue for the government and helped the government lower trade tariffs which had caused international markets to sell less. As people decided to save more in the face of those economic hardships they wound up actually saving less because businesses saw retail expenditures drop. They then decided to balance out there budgets they needed to layoff workers. As the article, â€Å"Causes of the Great Depression Political Perspectves on Causes and Cures†, states, â€Å" The increased savings (reduced spending) †¦. contributed to price deflation, perpetuating the Great Depression†¦. Businesses, cut back on investment spending because they were pessimistic about the future†¦. (led to) less investment, fewer jobs, less consumption and even less reason for business to invest. † http://www. experiencefestival. com/a/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression_-_Political_Perspectves_on_Causes_and_Cures/id/4905687 Role of the Financial Bailout for Lehman Brothers, Bears Stearns, and AIG Lehman Brothers: The nation’s 4th largest investment bank, Lehman Brothers, made poor investment decisions in its real estate holdings. Lehman Brothers, was one of the first investment banks granted the rights to borrow emergency money from Fed as a loan like commercial banks are allowed to. The true issue that arose with Lehman Brothers was that it was a insolvency risk (http://www. moneyweek. com/investments/stock-markets/what-went-wrong-at-lehman-brothers-03809. aspx). They had a large number of loans related to real estate and because such assets depreciated in value with the real estate market bubble burst, the face value of such properties was marked as a financial loss (Muolo 42-43, 143-144). When the company attempted to sell itself to Bank of America and Barclays, they were faced with their potential bidders requesting government support because they didn’t know the true scope of Lehman Brother’s financial losses. The Treasury department refused to grant this support, and both banks walked away from negotiations. After this occurred, Lehman was forced into filing for bankruptcy. (http://cbs5. com/business/lehman. brothers. crisis. 2. 816615. html) http://cbs5. com/national/lehman. brothers. shares. 2. 814040. html http://www. moneyweek. com/investments/stock-markets/what-went-wrong-at-lehman-brothers-03809. aspx Bears Stearns: Unlike Lehman Brothers, Bears Stearns was unable to get banks to lend money to them. As investors lacked confidence that the company could repay the prior loans granted to it, the reputation of this 5th largest investment bank faltered. The final element that led to its demise was that investors believed that the bank would be unable to adhere to the prior complex agreements that it had with the many other financial institutions that it did business with. Because such financial relationships with other banks was precarious and if the bank failed, those relationships could send a ripple effect through the economy the Federal Reserve was forced to agree to support JPMorgan Chase’s decision to purchase Lehman Brothers (http://www. usatoday. com/money/industries/banking/2008-03-17-bear-stearns-bailout_N. htm). The Federal Reserve agreed to â€Å" fund $30 billion of Bear Stearns assets that would be difficult to sell quickly, raising the possibility that taxpayers could be on the hook for part of the bailout†¦. As far as Wall Street securities houses go, Bear Stearns wasnt too big to fail, says Steve East, chief economist for FBR Capital Markets. (FBMC) It was too interconnected to fail. This collapse was the direct result of the bursting housing bubble. Society saw that home prices rose and fewer people could afford to purchase, so lending banks created new types of mortgages to qualify people who would not have qualified otherwise for the traditional 30 year fixed mortgage. These subprime mortgages allowed banks and brokers to charge fees for the closings which gave them substantial profits but no risk once the loans were sold to Wall Street. Investors, such as Bears Stearns, purchased these bulk complex securities packages and remained profitable on the interest generated from these packages. But when the housing market started to crash, borrowers became unable to refinance and select to default on their mortgages. With more defaults piling up, companies like Bears Stears were left with assets which were reflecting as devaluation. AIG The situation with AIG (American International Group) is a precarious one. As of Sept 16, 2008 this globally based company underwent a liquidity crisis due to its credit rating being downgraded; thus, AIG was forced to post collateral promises with its trading counter parties. When the company sold its CDS to meet collateralized debt obligations it endured a sharp decline in their value. The Federal Reserve was then forced to financially prop up the company so it did not collapse; which would have caused financial ruin for the global economy as other companies would have also collapsed. The Fed then created $85 billion in a secured credit facility for AIG, and took over 80% of AIG equity stake (Velshi 18). This bailout was by far the largest U. S. government bailout of a private company, but it was smaller than the bailout of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac which occurred earlier in Sept 2008. After this occurred, the share prices of AIG fell more than 95% in value to $1. 25 from its prior $70. 13 per share. Investors found that AIG valued the types of securities that it held at Alt-A and its sub-prime mortgage backed securities at 1. 7 to 2 times more than the rates used by Lehman Brothers, the largest bankruptcy in U. S. history. The following month on Oct 9, 2008 the company forced to borrow an additional $37. 8 billion as a second secured asset credit facility initialized by the Federal Reserve (http://money. cnn. com/2008/09/17/news/companies/aig_explainer/index. htm? postversion=2008091715). The defaults for the next months were increasing steadily which shows that the company itself was facing a big collapse. Then on Nov 10, 2008 the U. S. Treasury heralded that it would be acquiring $40 billion in newly issued AIG senior preferred stock, under the power of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Acts Troubled Asset Relief Program. Federal officials indicated that its $40 billion investment in AIG would enable the government to decrease the total risk exposure to AIG to $112 billion from $152 billion (http://news. yahoo. com/s/ap/20090302/ap_on_bi_ge/aig_rescue). During this financial bailout mayhem, the public learned that AIG executives squandered bailout money at an exquisite California resort. This â€Å"vacation† using bailout money cost $444,000 and included spa activities, festivities, and golf retreats. In addition, these executives also used $86,000 on a hunting trip to England; this with the Fed giving them additional loans of $37. 8 billion! They also used $343,000 on trip to Phoenix Arizona for an exotic resort there. So when does this bailout money end! Attempting to sell their assets, AIG has been unsuccessful in paying off its government loans. With the global economy taking hits in insurance businesses, AIG is being protected by the Fed from falling into bankruptcy. This financial support by the government has lead to the Fed writing off some of its loans as losses and further devaluing the U. S. dollar. Recently as of March 2, 2009 AIG reported a 4th quarter loss of $61. 7 billion dollars for the last three months of 2008. This loss impacted Europe and Asian trading markets as well. Financial Problems and How the Financial Bailout is Hoping to Address Each Point: Effects Both Here at Home and Abroad †¢ Problem: increase in unemployment as companies downsize Bailout Solution: $39 billion will be spent on health insurance for the unemployed who can use this money to pay for cobra coverage or Medicaid. In addition $43 billion will be spent to enable them to increase their unemployment benefits and receive job training for new positions. †¢ Problem: credit tightening and lending standards inflexible Bailout Solution: rescinding the requirement that a $7,500 first-time homebuyer tax credit be paid back over time, and giving loans to companies and new procedures to ensure that lending continues so that student loans, car loans, etc†¦would be easier to obtain (http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2009/02/01/GR2009020100154. html). In addition, changes to how mortgages were granted occurred http://useconomy. about. com/od/criticalssues/a/govt_bailout. htm) †¢ Problem: retail industries closing as public demand decreases, and infrastructure concerns Bailout Solution: $31 billion: Construction and repair of federal buildings and other public infrastructure along with water projects and mass transit projects. For retail industries and small businesses the government will double the amount they can write off for capital investments and vital business related purchase. (http://www. glennbeck. com/content/articles/article/198/20639/) †¢ Problem: decrease in global expansion efforts and trade between countries which affects emerging economies which depend upon the U. S. and U. K. for big and small purchases and exports in order to continue growth and expansion Bailout Solution: n/a. If the U. S. economy can get back on track this would coincide with other countries being less impacted by our poor financial situation. †¢ Problem: failure of the mortgage and real estate industries due to being unable to aid individuals with in refinancing or making new purchases because banks are refusing to lend money Bailout Solution: aid to struggling home owners, but not listed in bailout bill †¢ Problem: growth projections declining from 4. 9% in 2007 to 4. 0% in 2008 Bailout Solution: $275 billion in tax relief ($1,000 tax cut for families, $500 tax cut for individuals through SS payroll deductions) along with $20 billion spent to increase the food stamp benefit over 13% so as to help ease the rising food costs. †¢ Problem: inflation increases in oil, commodities, and food prices and energy issues Bailout Solution: $32 billion is destined for funding a smart electricity grid in order to reduce waste, and $16 billion is geared for research and development on energy related work, energy tax cuts, and credits (http://www. washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2009/02/01/GR2009020100154. html). †¢ Problem: individuals recognizing that the federal and state governments are over extended in war funding and not tending to our financial crisis in a timely or appropriate manner Bailout Solution: efforts to bring troops home, but not listed in bailout situation †¢ Problem: value of the American dollar and reputation has turned drastically negative Bailout Solution: n/a. Efforts to fix our tarnished reputation but the American dollar is devaluing even more due to the bailout. †¢ Problem: Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae, Bear Stearns, and IndyBank also being key examples of financial companies which all required immediate aid from the federal government in order to collapse (http://www. imf. org/external/np/speeches/2008/032108. htm) Bailout solution: Continued support of such institutions to ensure that they do not fail How Should We Fix the Regulation? As voting citizens, we must should insist that the government account for its spending habits and they must be made responsible for spending more than it can obtain via revenue. For companies like AIG which receive bailout money and spent it frivolously on expensive resorts they must be held responsible and the board of directors held accountable or given jail time. The cost of war has also been unaccounted for, so our new regulations need to decrease the amount of spending on that front. As the bailout takes our hard earned money it needs to be used on improving transportation, education, medical requirements, and even social security. Poor lending standards and practices must be better regulated for those seeking to get good refinance rates or purchase new homes, cars, or even student loans. As we are seeing a sharp rise in unemployment and off-shoring of jobs, it is improper that businesses which hire individuals in the United States are forced to pay unemployment taxes; whereas, companies which elect to outsource their labor force are not required to pay these same taxes. This means such companies have more money in revenue due to the fact that they are paying their employees less overseas and adding to the unemployment that we see here at home. This action is counterproductive because from a financial perspective organizations might save more money by outsourcing and not having to pay the additional taxes, but it also means that unemployment will continue to rise in the face of such activity. A fair technique would be to increase the taxes on companies with large profits, and grant a fair marginal credit to companies which employ workers in the United States. This activity would put money back in the hands of American workers who can then turn around and use their paychecks in the economy and ease the financial crunch. This would also allow them to learn how to manage debt more practically and not take the equity out of their homes to pay debt off. I suggest that we better educate ourselves in managing our finances and saving versus running ourselves into the ground in insurmountable debt. References: Amadeo, Kimberly (2009). What Exactly is the Bank Bailout Bill. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://useconomy. about. com/od/criticalssues/a/govt_bailout. htm Aversa, Jeannine. Govt moves to aid AIG yet again; when will it end? Retrieved March 1, 2009 from http://news. yahoo. com/s/ap/20090302/ap_on_bi_ge/aig_rescue Beck, Glenn. Obama Stimulus Package Breakdown. January 26, 2009. Website. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://www. glennbeck. com/content/articles/article/198/20639/ Congressional Budget Office | Reporting by Karen Yourish, graphic by Laura Stanton The Washington Post February 01, 2009. Website. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://www. washingtonpost. com/wpdyn/content/graphic/2009/02/01/GR2009020100154. html Heaton, Chris Sholto. (9/19/2008). MoneyWeek. What Went Wrong at Lehman Brothers. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://www. moneyweek. com/investments/stock- markets/what-went-wrong-at-lehman-brothers-03809. aspx Luhby, Tami (2008). Why the Fed Pulled the Trigger on AIG. CNNMoney. com, retrieved March 1, 2009 from http://money. cnn. com/2008/09/17/news/companies/aig_explainer/index. htm? postversion =2008091715 Muolo, Paul and Mathew Padilla (2008). Chain of Blame: How Wall Street Caused the Mortgage and Credit Crisis. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Mullins, Luke (2008). U. S. News. Five Reasons The House Passed the Bailout Bill. Retrieved from http://www. usnews. com/blogs/the-home-front/2008/10/3/5-reasons-the-house- passed-the-bailout-bill. html Kato, Takatoshi. (3/21/2008) The Financial Crisis and Economic Outlook-Lessons for Securing the Benefits of Financial Deepening. Retrieved Feb 28, 2009 from http://www. imf. org/external/np/speeches/2008/032108. htm Sahadi, Jeanne. CNNMoney (2/17/2009). Stimulus: Now for the Hard Part. Retrieved Feb 27,2009 from http://money. cnn. com/2009/02/17/news/economy/obama_stimulus_meas_success/index. Htm Small, Jay Newton (10/3/2008). Time. What the Bailout-Bill Crisis Has Wrought. Website Retrieved http://www. time. com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1847205,00. html The Associated Press (2008). Obama, McCain wary about financial bailout. Website. Retrieved Feb 27, 2009 from http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/26856877/ The Economist (2008). The credit crunch: The year of living dangerously. Website. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://www. economist. com/opinion/displayStory. cfm? source=hptextfeaturestory_i d=11885697 The Economist (2008). The credit crunch one year on: Mission creep at the Fed. Website Retrieved March 1, 2009 from http://www. economist. com/finance/displaystory. cfm? story_id=11897000 The Economist (2008). Home Truths: A housing slump helped cause the credit crisis. But its effect on spending may have been exaggerated. Website. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://www. economist. com/finance/displayStory. cfm? source=hptextfeaturestory_id=11 885272 The Economist (2008). The credit crunch one year on: Mission creep at the Fed. Website Retrieved March 1, 2009 from http://www. economist. com/finance/displaystory. cfm? story_id=11897000 Stamp, Gavin. BCC News. Credit crunch a year on: The losers. Retrieved Feb 26, 2009 from http://news. bbc. co. uk/1/hi/business/7523234. stm U. S. And World (9/10/2008). Lehman Brothers Announces $3. 9 Bil 3Q Loss. Retrieved on Feb 28, 2009 from http://cbs5. com/national/lehman. brothers. shares. 2. 814040. html U. S. And World (9/12/2008). Emergency Meeting Held To Discuss Lehman Crisis Retrieved on Feb 28, 2009 from http://cbs5. com/business/lehman. brothers. crisis. 2. 816615. html Velshi, Ali (2009). Gimme My Money Back: Your Guide to Beating the Financial Crisis. New York: Sterling and Ross Publishers. Pgs 16-25 Causes of the Great Depression Political Perspectves on Causes and Cures. Retrieved March 3, 2009 from http://www. experiencefestival. com/a/Causes_of_the_Great_Depression_- _Political_Perspectves_on_Causes_and_Cures/id/4905687 Waggoner, John and David J. Lynch (3/15/2008). USA Today. Red flags in Bear Stearns collapse. Retrieved on March 1, 2009 from http://www. usatoday. com/money/industries/banking/2008-03-17-bear-stearns- bailout_N. htm

Subsurface Layer Characterisation Research

Subsurface Layer Characterisation Research SUBSURFACE LAYER CHARACTERISATION FOR ENGINEERING PURPOSES USING VERTICAL ELECTRICAL SOUNDING IN BANANA ISLAND, LAGOS, NIGERIA OLADUNJOYE, H.T., 2OLALEYE, A.O. ABSTRACT Seven (7) vertical electrical sounding stations along two traverses were used to study the depth to competent formation for foundation of engineering structures in Banana Island of Lagos. The study is meant to unravel the presence of problem soils that can be inimical to structures.   The sounding data used in this study was acquired using Schlumberger Electrode Configuration. The VES data were interpreted into a model curve using forward modelling software called Winglink. The interpretation parameters (layer resistivities and thicknesses) for each VES point were grouped into three geo-electric sections to represent the 2-D models of the subsurface layers in the study area. The final interpretation results (resistivities and depths) modelled as geoelectrical sections and pseudosections were compared within the surveyed area and correlated with the borehole log-derived depths to determine a probable depth for foundations of high rise building. The study concluded that the geophysical investigation is of great significance in partial curve matching interpretation technique gives the most consistently low percentage deviation error margins amongst the three VES preliminary interpretation techniques. There is consistent increase in depth prediction error, with depth, in all the interpretation techniques. INTRODUCTION Geophysical resistivity techniques are based on the response of the earth to the flow of electrical current. In all methods, an electrical current is passed through the ground and the resulting potential electrodes allow us to record the resultant potential difference between the current electrode is measured. The apparent resistivity is then a function of the measured impedance (ratio of potential to current) and the geometry of the electrode array. Depending upon the survey geometry, the apparent resistivity data are plotted as 1-D soundings, 1-D profiles, or in 2- D cross-sections in order to look for anomalous regions. In the shallow subsurface, the presence of water controls much of the conductivity variation. Measurement of resistivity (inverse of conductivity) is, in general, a measure of water saturation and connectivity of pore space. This is because water has a low resistivity and electric current will follow the path of least resistance. Increasing saturation, increasing salinity of the underground water, increasing porosity of rock (water-filled voids) and increasing number of fractures (water-filled) all tend to decrease measured resistivity. Resistivity measurements are associated with varying depths depending on the separation of the current and potential electrodes in the survey, and can be interpreted in terms of a lithologic and/or geohydrologic model of the subsurface. The choice for Direct Current (DC) resistivity survey in this project is as a result of its ability to provide a quick synoptic picture of lithological and groundwater characteristics in terms of its apparent resistivity contrast. In this work the electrical resistivity character collected were model with Winresist and Winglink inversion software. The layers parameters (resistivities and thicknesses) obtained from data processing were then inverted with Winglink to provide two-dimensional images of the subsurface apparent resistivity variation (Pseudosection). However, knowledge on the geology of the area from acquired borehole log has played a vital role in determining the best fit model. MATERIALS AND METHOD OF STUDY The vertical electrical resistivity is used to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution and depth of the sub-surface layers with the aid of electrical resistivity meter. In this study, Schlumberger array of electrical resistivity method was adopted because of the low cost of the field operation, reduced logistics man power and also faster. A total of Six (6) vertical electrical sounding (VES) were measured within the area. The resistivity measurement is taken by introducing small portion of electricity through two current electrodes (A and B) and measuring the resultant voltage drop between a pair of potential electrodes (M and N). A simple calculated value of apparent resistivity is the parameter bearing the information for the characteristics of the subsoil (Tonkov, 2008). From the foundation of electrical resistivity theory is the ohms law (Grant and West, 1965; Dobrin and Sarvit, 1988):            Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (1) Where Ï  is the resistivity, R is the resistance, L is the length of the conducting cylinder and A is the cross sectional area. For the solid earth, whose material is predominantly made up of silicates and basically non conductors, the presence of water in the pore space of the soil and in the rocks fractures enhances the conductivity of the earth when an electrical current I is passed through it, thus making the rocks a semi conductor.   Since the earth is not like a straight wire and it is not an anisotropic, then Equation 1 can be customized as:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (2) Where change in voltage and r is is the radius of current electrodes hemisphere. Since the earth is not homogeneous, Equation 2 is used to define an apparent resistivity which is computed as the product of the geometric factor and the resistance recorded in the electrical resistivity meter and resistivity the earth would have if it were homogeneous (Grant and West, 1965;):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (3) Where, 2Ï€r is then define as the geometric factor (G) fixed for a given electrode configuration and is dependent on the electrode arrangement. The Schlumberger electrode configuration was used for this study. The geometric factor is thus given as:   Ã‚  Ã‚   (4) Where AB is the distance between two current electrodes, MN is the distance between two potential electrodes. LOCATION AND GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA The study area is located in the south-eastern part of Lagos State between Latitudes 6 ° 25 to 6 ° 28 North of the Equator and Longitudes 3 ° 24 to 3 ° 30 East of the Greenwich Meridian (Fig.1.1). The study area Lekki and its environ issituated within the western Nigeria coastal creeks and lagoon developed by barrier beaches associated with sand deposition (Pugh, 1954). It forms part of the Lagos lagoon system known as the largest of the four lagoon system in the gulf of guinea coast (Adepelumi and Olorunfemi, 2000). Banana Island is an artificial island in Lagos State, Nigeria. It is located in the Lagos Lagoon and attached to the North-Eastern Ikoyi Island by a dedicated road strip which is linked to the existing road network. The banana-shaped Island is approximately 1,630,000 square metres in size (less than a square mile) and is divided into 536 plots (of between 1000 and 4000 square metres in size) mainly arranged along cul-de-sacs, so designed to enhance the historically residential nature of Ikoyi. Banana Island is an artificial island reclaimed from portions of the Lagos Lagoon, topographic elevation obtained at the site averaged 4 metres above mean sea level. The study area is located within the coastal region of Nigeria with a climate of long wet season (April to October) and short dry season (November to March). Average annual precipitation is above 2000mm and serves as a source of groundwater recharge. The area is susceptible to flooding after heavy rainfall during the wet season. Nigeria lies in an extensive Pan-African mobile belt which separates the West African and Congo Cratons. The belt is interpreted to have evolved from the continental collision between the West African craton and the Pan-African belt (Black et al., 1979; Caby et al., 1981). Geochronologically, the Precambrian rocks of Nigeria can be grouped into four major classes (Liberian Orogeny 2800  ± 200 Ma, Eburnean Orogeny 2000  ± 200 Ma, Kibaran Orogeny 1100  ± 200 Ma and The Pan-African Orogeny 600  ± 150 Ma). These classes correspond with the four orogenic events that have punctuated the Precambrian history of Africa (Odeyemi, 1979). Figure 2.1: Regional Geological Map of Nigeria (Modified after Ajibade et al., 1988) Coastal Nigeria comprises two sedimentary basins: The Benin-Dahomey basin and the Niger Delta basin separated by the Okitipupa ridge. The rocks of the Benin basin are mainly sands and shales with some limestone which thicken towards the west and the coast as well as down dips to the coast. Recent sediments are underlain by the Coastal Plains Sands which is then underlain by a thick clay layer the Ilaro Formation and other older Formations (Jones and Hockey, 1964). The Coastal Plains Sands aquifer is a multi-aquifer system consisting of three aquifer horizons separated by silty or clayey layers (Longe et al., 1987). It is the main aquifer in Lagos Metropolis that is exploited through boreholes for domestic and industrial water supply. The sedimentary rocks of Lagos State are composed of five (5) sedimentary formations (Jones and Hockey, 1964) viz: Abeokuta Formation, Ewekoro Formation, Ilaro Formation, the Coastal Plains Sands and the alluvial deposits. The coastal plains sand also known as the Benin Formation stretches across the Dahomey basin into the Niger Delta Basin. The geological formations of the study area composed of sediments laid down under fluviate, lascustrine and marine environments. These sediments grade into one another and vary widely in lateral extent and thickness (Adepelumi and Olorunfemi 2000). Longe et al., (1987) classified the aquifer into three types. Quantitative interpretation of the curves involved partial curve matching using two-layer Schlumberger master curves and the auxiliary K, Q, A and H curves. Output from the quantitative interpretation was modelled using computer iteration. The Resist Version 1.0 interpretation software was used for iteration and presentation of the curves (see Figures 3a f). RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The apparent resistivities from the field plotted on a log-log graph survey against the corresponding half Schlumberger electrode spacing was interpreted using the computer iteration technique. The initial model was deriving by winresist software by entering layer parameters from partial curve process as the starting parameters. The resulting models were then iterated till the best fit curve as attained. In all, there was a large value for root mean square (r.m.s) error resulting mostly from the scattered point data observed where half Schlumberger electrode spacing is greater than 32m. In order to view the resistivity distribution of the whole surveyed area, the result of the soundings data linearly and vertically interpolated into two dimensional pseudosections. The borehole records from the geo-technical investigation were used as a control in interpreting the VES data acquired in this study. Interpretation of the geo-electric curves was essentially based on the fact that resistive materials constitutes zones of interest for engineering construction, considering that clay and organic materials are conductive and typified by low resistivity values(reference). The outputs from the manual interpretation were modelled using computer iterations. Resist Version 1.0 software was utilized for the iterations. The curve types obtained are 3 layer H (VES 1), 4 layer QH (VES 2, VES 3 and VES 6) and 5 layer QHK (VES 4 and VES 5), as shown in Figures 3a f. VES 1 and VES 6 with RMS-error (Root Mean Square) of 11.7 and 10.4 respectively present better quality data than VES 2 to VES 5 with RMS-error ranging from 12.7 to 20.8, thus the interpretation of the geo-electric curves at VES 1 and VES 6, present more reliable results. From the iteration of VES 1, depth to competent bedrock (sand) is 39.6 metres, while depth to competent (sand) layer at VES 6 is 39.8 metres, this is signified by the rising segment of the curve at both VES stations, typified by a relatively resistive material (5 105 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦-m). CONCLUSION This paper describes the possibility of locating a competent formation for high rise building in area around Banana Island Ikoyi using Schlumberger array. The results of the interpretation of field survey reveal only the presence such formation in depth close to 10m. At this depth saturated sandy clay can be obtain virtually for all the VES stations. This saturated sandy clay formation provides good foundation support for any high rise due to the fact that the liquefaction potential is very low compare to all other formation inferred from geologic section. REFERENCE Alile, M.O., S.I. Jegede and O.M. Ehigiator, 2008. Underground water exploration using electrical resistivity method in Edo State, Nigeria. Asian J. Earth Sci., 1: 38-42. Anderson, N. L. Selection of Appropriate Geophysical Techniques: A Generalized Protocol Based on Engineering Objectives and Site Characteristics. Proc., 2006 Highway Geophysics- NDE Conference, 2006, pp. 29-47. Available at http://2006geophysics.mst.edu/. Anderson, N. L., A. M. Ismail, and T. Thitimakorn. Ground-Penetrating Radar: A Tool for Monitoring Bridge Scour. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience, Vol. 13, 2007, pp. 1-10. Dobrin, M.B. and C.H. Savit, 1988. Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting. 4th Edn., McGraw Hill Book Co., New York. Dogara, M.D., B.M. Dewu and C.O. Ajayi, 1998. Groundwater potential of Romi, Kaduna. Nig. J. Physics., 10: 85-90. Grant, F.S. and G.F., West, 1965. Interpretation Theory in Applied Geophysics. McGraw-Hill, New York. Nwankwo L.I., P.I. Olasehinde and E.B. Babatunde, 2004. The use of electrical resistivity pseudo-section in elucidating the geology of an east-west profile in the basement complex terrain of Ilorin, West-Central Nigeria. Nig. J. Pure Applied Sci., 19: 1672-1682. Olasehinde, P.I., 1999. An integrated geological and geophysical exploration for groundwater in the basement complex of west central Nigeria. Water Resourses, 10: 46-49. Olasehinde, P.I., A.E. Annor and P.C. Pal, 1986. A geological evaluation of a prospective site for a weir on river Oyun, Ilorin, Nigeria. 7. Angew Geowiss, 8: 83-90. Olorunfemi, M.O and S.A. Fasoyi, 1993. Aquifer types and the geoelectric/hydrogeologic characteristics of part of the central basement terrain of Nigeria (Niger State). J. Afr. Earths Sci., 16: 309-317. Plummer, C.C., D. McGeory and D.H. Carlson, 1999. Physical Geology. 8th Edn., McGraw Hill Co. Inc., New York, pp: 48-56. Rabiu, A.B, I. A. Adimula, K. Yumoto, J. O. Adeniyi and G. Maeda, 2009. Preliminary results from the magnetic field measurements using MAGDAS at Ilorin, Nigeria. Earth Moon Planets, 104: 173-179. Rahaman, M.A., 1973. Review of the Basement Geology of South Western Nigeria. In: Geology of Nigeria, Kobe, C.A. (Ed.). 2 Edn., Rockview Publishers, Jos, Nigeria. Singh, K.K.K., A.K.S. Singh, K.B. Singh and A. Sinha, 2006. 2D resistivity imaging survey for siting water-supply tube wells in metamorphic terrains: A case study of CMRI campus, Dhanbad, India. The Leading Edge, 25: 1458-1460

Essay --

Most people thing that being an electrical engineer means that you spend your day going to people’s house and fixing their electrical problems. In reality there is more to this career than meets the eye. What they don’t know is that being an electrical engineering is a very advanced field that requires you to invent, design, and construct electrical and electronic devices as well as be able to adapt to different roles when the opportunity arises. For a career in this field you are required a minimum of a bachelors degree of science in engineering and a good computer skills. Electrical engineering has nine divisions, each with its own specialty but even though their field is a bit different they all go through the same steps. The only difference is the product. It could be a computer, a generator or even a robot. According to what can you do second edition, electrical engineers first have to invent and design the device they want to build. This phase is mostly done with computers so computer skills are very necessary for this job. After this phase is complete they begin their construction phase. In this phase they build and test the new built devices. This is the phase where you apply your understanding of electrical components. For this job you are required to work eight hours a day, and make business trips once in a while but this is mostly an office job. For a carrier in the field of electrical engineering, a minimum of a bachelor’s degree of science in engineering is required. To get this degree, you will have to take 4 years of college. I am planning on attending University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). The reason I am planning to go there is because they teach this field up to PhD. Therefore, if I e... ...ddition this carrier is found at about anywhere in the world, wherever you are at you have a good chance of getting a carrier in this field. But that is not the only reason that I choose to pursue this carrier. The other reason is that you gain a wide range of knowledge during studies. Even with the basic lessons you improve your knowledge and that knowledge can be applied to many of your daily activities. Another reason is for a better is for a better understanding of computers. Now days computers are becoming a big part of our life, lots tasks are performed by computers and for that good computer skills are necessary. Electrical engineers are challenged with computer problems on every step of their study, field and their everyday life. For electrical engineers, computer play a very important role in their job and without them there will be no modern engineering.

The Great Gatsby True Love Essay -- essays research papers

In F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby, many people of the high social status such as Tom, Myrtle, and Nick wonder if Gatsby is truly in love with Daisy, or if he is in love with what Daisy, herself, represents. Gatsby's whole life is based on trying to win Daisy's love. But does Gatsby ever think about how it would be if he did win her back? He is so caught up with the illusion of love that he doesn't really think about how his life will be, if he were to win Daisy's love back. Truly, he would not have been happy with Daisy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gatsby is a keen, intelligent man that knows how to get what he wants. Yet, just because he knows how to win Daisy's love, doesn't mean he put much thought into what his life would be like with her. In Gatsby's eyes, Daisy is the perfect 'Dream Woman';. Daisy, in Gatsby's eyes, can never do anything wrong. Gatsby, is so in love with Daisy because over the year's he has become infatuated with her. He has made her an untouchable dream. Yet in reality, Daisy is a totally different person than what Gatsby views her as. If Gatsby did live the rest of his life with her, he would most likely not be happy, only because Daisy and Gatsby are of two different backgrounds and pasts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since Gatsby is so caught up with the illusion of being with the girl of his dreams, he will do almost anything to win Daisy's love back and will do anything to have Daisy be with him. Gats...

Review of Research Paper about Odor Maps :: Biology Scent Smell

Missing figures and pictures Introduction Imagine you have just walked into a sweet smelling pastry shop. As the delicious sugary sweet smell enters your nostrils, your mouth begins to water. Your stomach begins to moan and you realize that you want to eat that delicious pastry. Have you ever wondered why these things occur? Have you ever wondered how your brain actually knows what it is smelling and doesn't just clump different scents into one single smell? Wouldn't it be awful if all you could smell was a mixture of the world around you? In this simple tutorial, we will show you how researchers are now solving the mysteries of scent. Background In order for researchers to start learning the functions of scent they had to use a test agent in which to perform experiment on. They found that manduka moths were great models because their antennas were basically their main scent receptors, and of course because moths reproduce well and are small enough to maintain. Interestingly enough, Manduka are extremely good models because they are much bigger than other moths, making them easier to see. Additionally, their brains are much larger, facilitating research. - Everything begins within the lab, including reproduction of the moths. - Male and female moths are placed into a cage where they mate and produce eggs. - The eggs are usually found on the leaves of plants within the cage which researchers collect and place into containers. - The eggs are placed on a growing media, basically a food supplement, so that when the eggs hatch the larvae can begin to feed. They are stored in a room with a controlled temperature as well. - The larvae begin to grow in size as they eat more and more of the food supplement. - Eventually, each caterpillar is placed into its own little container with a large block of food supplement, where it will grow until it is ready to metamorphose. - When the caterpillar are ready to metamorphose, researchers place them into their own compartment Basically, the compartment is a box of wood with holes drilled out and a lid to make the box dark. - When the caterpillars are almost ready to come out of their hard shell (cocoon), researchers place them onto a plate. Once they come out of their cocoon they are full grown and ready to be researched upon. Hypothesis - Glomeruli are the functional modules in the brain olfactory system, and each glomerulus responds to a different odor.

What I shall be in 30 years’ time

In my moments of solitude, I haven often mused about this. What will I be in 30 years? That seems a long way ahead but then time does pass by and in a blink of an eye, the years will roll past and I shall be 48. Have I earned a niche in my life? Am I successful in my career? Am I happy in my marriage? How many kids will I have? Sometimes, an image of a hen-pecked husband having to put up with a wife who nags constantly and spends extravagantly imposes itself in my mind or I would be successful in the corporate world? Well, if I really made it in my life, then that signals the star of a pleasurable life. The saying ‘Life begins at 40’ is true. I shall sit back and enjoy my life to the fullest. Perhaps I could own a profitable company and called it L. O. Sdn. Bhd. It coud be even listed on the KL Exchanges Main Board. I may even jet set round the world in my own private jet whether it is solely for business or pleasure e. g one evening in Paris and the next in London. If time permits, I shall go globe trotting, visit some of the Seven Wonders of the world like The Great Wall of China in Beijing, The Pyramid of Egypt, Taj Mahal in India, Eiffel Tower in Paris, Leaning Tower of Paris, Grand Canyon in Arizona and The Colosseum in Rome where I can re-live the days of the gladiators. On the other hand, I could just be an average income earner, married with a simple, humble and attractive woman and have 3 children. I shall enjoy the company of a closely-knit, harmonious family. Hopefully my children will be well-behaved, disciplined and intelligent. If that is the case, what more can I ask from God? Life would certainly be fulfilling and rewarding. I do not know exactly what my fate in world in life will be. Perhaps I might remain single, end up as a confirm bachelor. That is possible if I do not meet my watch, Miss Right. I do not think I will feel lonely or disappointed. I would rather remain single than marry and later find myself on the verge of a divorce. During my free time I shall be actively involved in charity of socials, volunteer myself in helping the needy, go for activities like fishing, jet skiing, parachuting or some other sports. I could even adopt orphans. As long as I am financially independent and contented with my life, I see no necessity in tying the knot and regretting later. All the images above are but a fragment of the imagination where hopes, dreams and reality are mixed. Hopes are the start of a bright and glorious future. Hence, I would cling to them. How can dreams and hopes come true for a person if he does not dream?

Primary Education in India: Evolution, Structure and Development Essay

Education is one of the major factors which control a nation’s economic and scientific growth. In the report, an attempt has been made to analyze the primary education system of India and how it has evolved over the course of history and affected various sections of the society. To create the report, various data sources, secondary research, surveys and government legislations were used and referred. The report charts the evolution of the Indian education system in an attempt to understand the reasons behind the present condition of the system. A description of the features of the public education system and low cost private schooling system in India, both in terms of quantity and quality, has been provided with the help of various data sources and secondary research. It was found that the literacy rates, especially in the younger age groups, for both boys and girls are on an upward trend. However, the increase in literacy rates and education provided has not been uniform in various sections of society as well as various states. Similarly, literacy rates for girls, rural residents, and members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes also lag behind those for boys, urban residents and the upper castes. Public expenditure on education in India has been rising over time and the government initiatives have resulted in a 9% increase in the literacy rate from 2001 to 2011. An analysis of the schooling system shows the growth in the literacy rates of the country since Independence and how it parallels with the increase in initiatives by the Indian government. It reflects non-uniform growth and disparity in the education imparted with respect to various sections, castes, gender and states in the country. The report also aims to increase the understanding of different perspectives and alternatives to the present system of primary schooling and education in the country. 2. INTRODUCTION Primary education is the foundation on which the development of every country is built on. In every country in the world, education is acknowledged as a tool for development and prosperity. Education is viewed as an intrinsically valuable commodity and a means to economic and social wellbeing of an individual as well as an entire nation. ? Most developed nations in the world also possess a sound primary and secondary education system. In the past few decades, the government of India has focused on provision of more schools ‘quantity’ and not on the ‘quality’. Various studies shown in the report will demonstrate that the percentage of ‘functionally literates’ is very low and the inadequacy of basic facilities and lack of infrastructure in schools. Government’s continuous efforts in the form of programs like ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’, DPEP, Mid-Day meals can be credited to achieve the above objectives. Literacy Rate of India has had an increase of 62% since independence, but individual literacy rates of various states show significant variations. In 2011, 95% population of 7+ of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra were literate, while Bihar had a literacy rate of 63. 25% with a female literacy rate of 33. 6%. The results of the surveys conducted show that some states are ‘educationally more advanced’ than others. India’s primary education has evolved from the traditional schools to the modern classroom. This has given the opportunity to the masses to get educated. New modern education also exposes the world and provides adequate infrastructure for an integrated learning environment. India’s literacy rates have increased from 12. 0% to 74. 04% in 2011 and although the male-female literacy rate gap is still 24. 1%, it has decreased over the last decade by 10%. The number of primary schools has increased three-fold from 209,671 to 664,041 and now 90% population has a school within 1 kilometer. While critics argue that the primary education system of India is not as advanced as the system in most developed countries, it is bound to become one of the fastest growing and most effective systems in the world in the near future due to the strong policies made by the government and the rapid growth of the alternative schooling system. 3. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLING IN INDIA ? In the pre-British era, education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru in traditional schools called gurukuls. Historically and traditionally, India had predecessors to the modern system of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila and Ujjain Universities where Science, Art, Economics, Politics, Law, and Medicine were the few early subjects that were taught. The British came to India in the second half of the millennium and by the late 19th and early 20th century, they were successful and instrumental in creating a proper schooling system with primary and secondary education which has been followed by the Indian state ever since. After India gained independence in 1947, education became the responsibility of the states. The Central Government’s only obligation was to co-ordinate in technical and higher education and specified standards. This continued till 1976, when the education became a joint responsibility of the state and the Centre.? In 1976, education was made a joint responsibility of the states and the Centre through a constitutional amendment Center is represented by Ministry of Human Resource Development’s Department of Education and together with the states, it is jointly responsible for the formulation of education policy and planning. The 86th Amendment of the Indian constitution makes education a fundamental right for all children aged 6-14 years. When India gained independence, the literacy rate was as low as 12% but has been growing ever since. Even though the literacy rate rose to 74% in the 2011 census which also translated into economic growth, there’s still a long way to go. In recent past, India has made great progress in terms of increasing primary education enrolment, attendance rate, retention and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India. As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India. Education has also been made free for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009. There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system. 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states. 4. STRUCTURE OF THE GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS The main types of schools are those controlled by State government boards The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) and The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) International schools. These schools try to copy the schools in the West in pattern and syllabus and are considerably more expensive than regular schools. Overall, according to the latest Government Survey undertaken by NUEPA (DISE, 2010-11), there are over 1 million schools. Expenditure on Education in India Expenditure on education is on a rise. The Indian budget has provided Rs. 34,400 crores to the educational sector in India. It is an increase of 20% over previous year. In 2004 expenditure on education stood at 3. 52% of the GDP and in the eleventh plan it is estimated to be around 4% while it should be at least 6% of GDP. The District Information System for Education (DISE) reported in 2012 that 95% of India’s rural populations are within one kilometer of primary schools. The 2011 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which tracks trends in rural education, indicated that enrollment rates among primary-school-aged children were about 93%, with little difference by gender. However, behind the veil of such promising statistics, the learning outcomes of India’s children show little progress. The country ranked 63 out of 64 in the latest Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) study, with some of its best schools ranked about average among those surveyed. The 2011 ASER stated that only 48. 2% of students in the fifth grade can read at the second grade level. The number of students completing their primary education with inadequate numeracy and literacy skills is startling. To see this manifest in an economic sense, one may attribute India’s productivity growth — lagging behind that of East Asian economies — to a lack of progress in the foundational elements of countrywide, high-quality education. India’s private-schooled, English-speaking urban elite may attract global attention, but they are in the minority. The vast majority of Indian children attend government-run primary schools in rural areas. In 2008-2009, rural India accounted for more than 88% of India’s primary-school students, of whom over 87% were enrolled in government-run schools. This is where we see some of the nation’s challenges. â€Å"The destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms. † (Education Commission, 1964-66. ) This statement rings true half a century later.? While the development planners rightly recognized that expansion of educational facilities has to be accompanied with improvements in quality and relevance of education at all levels, the outcome is different at different places in the country. 5. THE INDIAN SOCIETY AND ITS ROLE IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 5. 1 Socio-economic disparities Despite the strong constitutional backing for the provision of primary education in India and its expansion over time, the system is characterized not only by low achievements but also by large unevenness of achievements. Differences remain between rural and urban areas, and the probability of getting any education at all sharply depends on gender, caste and income. Women, scheduled castes and tribes and the poor are faced with barriers when it comes to getting basic education. Of the 200 million children in the age group 6-14, it is estimated that 59 million are out of school. Of these 35 million are girls and 24 million are boys (Ministry of Human Development, GOI). Apart from socio-economic determinants, the educational infrastructure and the management and the governance of the educational system in India are far from efficient or sufficient. The government is the largest provider of education in India with only about10% of primary schools owned by the private sector. The  quality of education provided by the public education system is low which translates into low educational abilities even for those who are able to complete primary education cycle. Moreover, there is a lot of ‘waste’ in the educational system with dropout rates as high as 40% for the country as a whole and in some Indian states, they are as high as 75%. Though the number of primary schools in the country increased, more than 1 lakh habitations still do not have access to a primary school within a distance of one kilometer. Teacher-pupil ratios are inadequate: less than 2 teachers are available in rural areas to teach a class size of around 100 students. Teacher motivation and teaching incentives are also very weak. 5. 2 Rural-Urban and Gender Disparities Perhaps, the largest disparity in educational attainment in India is by rural-urban location. While there has been some catching up in literacy rates for both males and females between rural and urban areas, the differences continue to be unacceptably large, especially for females. The child sex ratio also has a major impact on the disparity of the education imparted. Haryana, where the child sex ratio is decreasing, also sees the maximum amount of disparity when it comes to gender inequality of education. Only 46% of females in rural areas were literate as opposed to nearly 73% in urban areas in 2001, a gap of around 27 percentage points. For males, the gap was lower at around 15% percentage points with 71. 18% of males in rural areas and 86. 42% in urban areas being literate in 2001. However, school attendance has been rising for both girls and boys at the elementary school level in both rural and urban areas. The following table shows school attendance for boys and girls in the 614 years age category in 1992-93 and 1998-99 for rural and urban areas. Fewer girls attend school in rural areas compared to their urban counterparts, and also compared to boys in rural areas. The proportion of girls attending schools, however, has increased from 59% to 70% between the years under comparison. School Attendance (%), age 6-14 years 1992-93 Female Rural Urban Total 52 79 59 Male 72 85 75. 5 1998-99 Female 70 86 74 Male 81 89 83. While participation of girls in education has seen an increase over time at all levels of education, it continues to lag behind that of boys. Even in 2001-2002, girls’ enrolment remains below 50% of total enrolment at the primary school level. This is true of girls’ enrolment at all levels of education, though they have been increasing at levels beyond the primary as well. The table above provides enrolment data, which only takes into account entry into the school system and not attendance or retention, which as we have noted above was 73% for females compared to 79% for males. Moreover, if we view statistics for India as a whole, the numbers hide considerable variations. According to the Indian Census of 2001, of the 593 districts in India, 309 districts had (total) female literacy rates lower than the national average and 324 districts had a gender gap in (total) literacy rates that was greater than the national average. The gender gap in education is mostly due to entrenched gender norms, especially in the states of the north, where girls are married off at very young ages and exogamy in marriage means that any benefits of investment in education of girls will be captured by the household after marriage. This reduces parental incentives in the education of girls. The gender gap in education perhaps reaches its apogee in the North-western state of Rajasthan which can be seen as illustrative of what plagues gender equity in education in India as a whole. According to the 1991 Census, Rajasthan had 7 million children of primary school going age of which only 52. 8% attended school. Moreover, among girls the attendance rate was only 37. 4%. The drop out rate from the primary school system was as high as 55%. A large fraction of out of school children were girls. Among scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, the literacy rates for women were as low as 9% and 7% respectively. Thus, gender and caste attitudes have resulted in severe gender inequity in education in Rajasthan. These social attitudes are reproduced officially rendering them invisible, further compounding the low status of women in Rajasthan. 5. 3 Scheduled Castes and Tribes Membership in castes continues to exert a powerful influence on the attainment of socio-economic well being for people in India. This is reflected in almost all the social and economic development indicators for scheduled castes and tribes in India vis-a-vis the rest of the population. Scheduled tribes do worse than scheduled castes and girls belonging to scheduled castes and tribes do much worse than boys belonging to scheduled castes and tribes. At the primary school level, most boys are now enrolled in schools and the percentage of girls enrolled has also improved over time, though it continues to lag in certain states. One of the tables in the appendix provides enrolment ratios for boys and girls belonging to scheduled castes for 1997-98. Enrolment ratios for boys are above 100% for all states. However, drop-out rates for boys and girls belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are higher than average. In the case of scheduled tribes, nearly 64% of boys and 70% of girls drop out before completing primary school (MHRD, 1994). 6. THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT IN THE SYSTEM Education is one of the most important parameters that can lead a country to a more sustained growth trajectory. The effect of education increases more in a country like India with over 1billion people. It should be noted that till 1976 in India, education was a ‘state subject’ . Post 1976 even the central government got involved in the process but the state could still enact laws modifying those passed by the central government. This implies that the primary responsibility for education lies with the state government. It may be noted that while expenditure on primary education may be nominal or even zero, especially in rural areas, the opportunity cost of education can be high which is why many households in the rural areas are reluctant to send their children to school. They see them as earning members of their families right from their childhood. In 2001-2002, India spent about 4% of its GDP on education, which is less than the proposed 6%. The following table shows government expenditure on education (all levels) as a ratio of expenditure on all sectors as well as percentage of GDP. From above, it is clear that elementary education was ignored by the government and more emphasis were given to secondary and tertiary education but at the start of the 21st century elementary education was finally given its due importance by allocation of more money. Elementary education is financed almost completely by the government – central, state and local – and government funds account for 99% of all recurring expenditure in elementary education. The District Primary Education Program(DPEP) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) are two large scale programs undertaken by the government of India to provide primary and upper primary education to all the citizens of India. 6. 1 District Primary Education Program (DPEP) The Government of India launched the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) in 1994 with the aim to attain the goal of universal elementary education. The objectives of the program are: †¢ To provide access to all children to primary education through formal primary schools or its equivalent through alternatives †¢ To reduce overall dropouts at the primary level less than 10 percent †¢ To increase achievement levels by 25 percentage points over and above the measured baseline levels †¢ To reduce disparities of all types to less than 5 percent. The criteria to identify districts under the programme are: †¢ Educationally ward districts with female literacy below the national average †¢ Districts where TLC(Total Literacy Campaigns) have been successful leading to enhanced demand for primary education (Department of Education: 1993). When the program was launched in 1994, it covered forty-two districts in seven states, namely Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Later, it was extended to Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh. Currently, the program covers 176 districts in 15 states of India. These states together have 60% of the child population in India. Another 60-65 districts are slated be brought into the DPEP fold. DPEP is a centrally sponsored scheme with the central government providing 85% of funds and the state government providing the remaining 15%. The share of the central government comes from external assistance from bilateral and multilateral agencies such as the World Bank, IDA, DFID, EC, UNICEF and the government of Netherlands. In the first phase of DPEP, 1,60,000 teachers were trained, 4,500 new schools, 5,000 class rooms were constructed and 14,400 toilet and water facilities provided. According to a study conducted by the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA, 1998a), between 19931994 and 1996-1997, enrollment rates in DPEP districts increased by more than in non-DPEP districts. In many of the DPEP districts, primary school enrollment of girls increased at a higher rate than that for boys. Of the additional 6, 30,000 children enrolled in 39 of the 42 phase I DPEP districts between 1995-6 and 1996-7, 51. 5% were girls. Another NIEPA study (NIEPA, 1998b), found that among the DPEP phase I states, the highest enrollment increase of 35. 6 % was in Assam followed by Haryana (15.9%) and Maharashtra (14. 6%) in 1996-97. The national average was 9. 4 per cent. In 1997-98, the highest increase in enrollment was in Madhya Pradesh (10. 5%). 6. 2 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) The central government launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (Universal Elementary Education) in 2001. The goal of SSA was to provide meaningful and quality education to all children between the ages 6-14 by 2010. It is an umbrella plan for elementary education in India and includes the DPEP. SSA is a response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country and an opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education. It is a partnership between central, state and the local government. Objectives of SSA †¢ All children should be in school, Education guarantee centre, alternative school or back to school camp by 2005. †¢ All children in the state complete five years of primary schooling by 2007. †¢ All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010. †¢ Focus should be made on Elementary emphasis on education for life in the state. Education of satisfactory quality with †¢ Bridge all gender and social category gaps at the primary stage by 2007 and at the elementary level by 2010 in the state. †¢ Universal retention of children by 2010. The financial obligation by the government towards SSA has been estimated to be an additional Rupees 6,000 million over the next ten years to be shared by the central and state governments. Unlike the DPEP, the SSA is a program that is entirely domestically funded and does not rely on external resources. The funds for the SSA are allocated from the Union Budget. Secondly, the SSA is an initiative of the Central government, even though education in India is largely the responsibility of state governments. 6.3 Mid Day Meal Scheme (MDMS) It is the largest noon meal programme in the world. It covered about 10. 46 crore children of primary and upper primary classes in 11. 92 lakh govt. aided, local body, and NCLP Schools as well as Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS). Rs 48000 crores allocated for the program me during the 11th five year plan; Rs 38,000 crores spent so far. The benefits of MDMS are: †¢ Preventing classroom hunger †¢ Promoting school participation †¢ Facilitating healthy growth of children †¢ Intrinsic educational value †¢ Fostering social equality †¢ Enhancing gender equity †¢ Psychological Benefits The nutritional norm for upper primary stage was fixed at 700 Calories and 20 grams of protein. Midday meal scheme is an important step forward in improving both the education and health outcomes of children in India and greater effort and funds should be channeled in improving its quality and implementation. 7. QUALITY AND QUANTITY India has complex social structure where economic, social and gender disparities are present. Providing education to the masses keeping in mind disparities in the Indian society has been the goal of the government since independence. In India there is an emphasis on provision of more schools (‘quantity’) and providing easy access to these institutes. ‘Quantity’ of an education system can be defined as the measure of physical access to schools. Under ‘Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan’ the government aims to ensure that every person in India has a school within one kilometer of his/her residence and is given free primary education. This is to ensure that in rural and tribal areas where resources people have are limited, have easy access to school. Between 1950-51 and 2011-2012, the number of primary schools increased from 209,671 to 664,041, which is more than a three-fold increase. Eighty-four percent of Indian population now has a primary school within one kilometer and local government or local bodies run ninety percent of these schools. ‘Quality’ of an education system is a measure of school supplies, level of teaching and basic amenities provided by the school. Low quality education system indicates that students who have completed primary school are not functionally literate and numerate. In Maharashtra, Community based surveys of 28 cities and 8 rural districts in 2003 found that 30% students were able to read basic texts and perform basic arithmetic according to a report by A.  K. Bannerjee in 2001. The Probe team in 1999 reported similar results in Northern states. A study of two districts of Madhya Pradesh by Leclercq in 2002 found that only 27% students were able to read texts fluently. Thus, while increase in literacy rates are significant, the numbers may be misleading and do not show the ‘functional literacy rates’. The infrastructure in schools is an important measure of the ability of the education institution to impart ‘quality’ education to students. Most schools do not have classrooms large enough to accommodate all students. The  Probe Report in 1999 found that there are as many 40-50 students in a class with its seating capacity of only 25 on an average. The low figures of 25 in schools in Bihar and Andhra Pradesh do not indicate adequate resources, but low attendance in the schools. School structures also lack basic facilities like running water and toilets. A study showed that in Uttar Pradesh, 54% schools did not have running water and 86% schools did not have toilets (World Bank, 1997). Grover and Singh (2002) in their study of two districts of Tamil Nadu found that out of twentyfive schools only two had toilets. The non-availability of these basic facilities reduces student attendance, as the students have to return to their home to use these basic facilities. The lack of separate toilets for boys and girls also influences parent’s incentives to send their daughters to school. The quality of education provided is most affected by the teachers in the institute. Teacher availability in rural areas is very low. A report by a NGO (CSO 2001) shows that 80% teachers in rural areas apply for transfer to urban areas. This has led to severe imbalance in distribution of resources between the two areas. This reflects on the student-teacher ratio. India has a student to teacher ratio of 43, which is almost, double the ratio observed in developed countries. Moreover, most rural schools (almost 45%) are single or two-teacher schools, there is multi-grade teaching, which reduces the quality of education even further and is not shown by pupil-teacher ratios. There is little check on teacher accountability and teacher attendance reported is also low. In many schools, a lot of teaching time is devoted to do paperwork than actual teaching. In rural areas, Opening and closing times of the school deviate from the administrative fixed timings according to the whims of the teachers. The Grover and Singh report (2002) found that schools were often unexpectedly closed during rain, excessive heat, or agriculture peak period and for cultural reasons like marriages. This finally leads to irregular attendance and poor quality of education. Teacher qualification is an important parameter in the education system. In Tamil Nadu, The Grover and Singh report found that 85% teachers had adequate qualifications and 2 years of training for High school education, but this is not the case in other states like UP, Bihar and Rajasthan. Teacher training programs are also not designed for the reality of environment and the constraints under which teaching actually takes place. There is no focus on single-teacher schools where a teacher has to teach multiple grades and handle administration. The program also does not sensitize teachers for economic and social disparities, which are characteristic to the Indian scenario. Stronghold of teacher-unions has further reduced teacher accountability. In 2002, 457 allegations were registered against teachers and principals for ‘corruption’. This includes miss-use of school funds, recruitment of friends and relatives as teachers and ‘selling’ important positions in the school by bribes and social connections. Teacher apathy comes out very strongly in small surveys carried out by various research teams all over India. PROBE (1999) team reports that there was no teaching happening in half of the sample schools the team visited and the problem further compounded by poor infrastructure, overcrowded classrooms and lack of teaching materials. A research conducted by Grover and Singh in 2002 reported that in 70% of schools in Madurai and Villupuram in Tamil Nadu, no instruction was taking place. In Madhya Pradesh, management has been decentralized to village level bodies like Gram Panchayat to improve administration according to the regional needs. Alternate schools also report social differentiation and inequality in schools . Social differentiation on the basis of caste was always present in India, and the above reform has alleviated the problem. This is observed especially in the areas where students belong to a ‘lower’ social caste and teachers belong to the dominant caste. This increases the problem of low enrollment, dropout rates and parental apathy towards public schools. World Bank’s study of 1997, estimated 45% girl and 42% boy dropout rate before class five. The All-India rate is 40% highlighting that dropout is still a major problem in Public education system. The dropout rate of girls is always higher than boys (Except Karnataka) and in five states UP, Bihar, Rajasthan West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh; dropout rates are more than 50%. Corporal punishment is reported to be practiced in both rural and urban schools. Psychologists say no matter how serious the offence, beating should not be allowed. It leaves a very serious trauma on the student’s mind. In 2011, 40 cases were registered in Delhi of corporal punishment. The worst aspect is that almost 90% of the cases go unreported as parents too think it must be their child’s mistake and that’s why he/she must have been administered a beating. It was seen as an acceptable form of punishment by the society until 2000, when the Supreme Court banned it in all schools. There have been many cases in which students have lost their lives because of corporal punishment. In 2010, a nine-year old girl, Piya Chaudhary died of due to cancer arising out of injuries inflicted on her head by a schoolteacher. In 2012, Aslam Ansari died after thrashing by his teachers in Madhya Pradesh. Every year, numerous children die due to corporal punishment in schools. This reflects the quality of education and teacher apathy. 8. LOW COST PRIVATE SCHOOLS VS GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS One of the major movements that have come up in India and other developing countries is the system of low-cost private schools which are accessible by the masses. The affordable or low-cost private school system which basically consists of private schools where monthly student fees varies from Rs 100-Rs 750 ( 2 US$ to 15US$) is gaining momentum worldwide and helps poor families in having a say in their children’s education and future. . In a UNDP survey across 10 major cities of the developing world, however, as many as 75 per cent of students were attending private schools, paying fees of less than US$10 a month. ? These schools serve as alternatives to the age-old system of public schooling in the developing countries in the world. The various differences between public schooling and low-cost private schooling will be studied with the case of Indian schooling system as the focal point. India lives in its villages and the primary education system in most villages is below par. The country aims for a 6% allocation of the GDP dedicated to the education sector of the country but hasn’t been able to put it into practice as of now. It is often very difficult to quantify growth and learning of a student and distinguish between the overall performances of students of public and private schools. The parameters and benchmarks are very subjective. The quality or effectiveness of the low-fee private schools is very difficult to gauge especially in India when it’s still in the nascent stages. There is no comparable measure of learning achievement in private and public schools Test scores and literacy rates along with passing percentage are one of the few criterions to work with. The relative cost of private and public schools, where the focus is on the monthly cost of teaching each student. The major chunk of the expenditure goes on salaries.